How complement pathways generate C3b, anaphylatoxins and C5b–9; why endothelial injury is tissue-specific and what positive, negative and retracted clinical findings show.
Two TNF forms, TNFR1 ubiquitin platforms, caspase-8 and MLKL, TNFR2 signaling and the limits of translating cellular mechanisms into clinical therapy.
Dendritic cells: TLRs, MHC-I/MHC-II processing, cross-presentation, metabolism and tolerance. ZOE-50, IMPACT and the negative ACCESS result.
Local vitamin D metabolism, VDR, CAMP and DEFB4: enzymes, compartments, LL-37 maturation and the limits of clinical infection prevention.
Why food-specific IgG4 neither diagnoses intolerance nor guarantees safety. IgE/FcεRI signalling, IgG4 exchange, BAT, coeliac disease and actual LEAP, EAT, PALISADE and OUtMATCH findings.
Zinc-dependent thymulin activity, transport and TCR signaling; age-related involution, positive and negative trials, laboratory limitations, and safety.
Four CD4+ T-cell programs: receptors, transcription, epigenetics and metabolism, clinical trials, and limits of supplement claims.
How green tea EGCG interacts with DNMT, FOXP3, NF-κB and mTOR, why mouse findings do not establish stable human Treg, and what clinical studies show about efficacy and liver safety.
How standardized pine bark extract becomes metabolites, what is known about eNOS, COX and 5-LOX, and where clinical trials show positive or negative results.
EPA/DHA enzymatic pathways, stereochemistry, receptors and efferocytosis. Analytical limits of SPM measurements and findings from small studies, REDUCE-IT, STRENGTH and GAUDI.
How lactoferrin coordinates Fe³⁺, how lactoferricin and other experimental mechanisms are studied, and what trials show for preterm sepsis, anemia, H. pylori, and respiratory infections.
How GML amphiphilicity changes membranes, why activity depends on the medium, and what short human topical studies actually found. Covers viral spectrum, cell signaling, hydrolysis, and the absence of an established oral treatment regimen.
What is known about elderberry cyanidin anthocyanins and neuraminidase, the limits of pharmacokinetic evidence, and why small positive trials coexist with a negative RCT in PCR-confirmed influenza. Raw-material safety and the absence of a universal dose are considered separately.
Echinacea alkylamide chemistry, CB2-dependent and independent cellular responses, human pharmacokinetics, and mixed clinical findings, with limits on extrapolation.
A professional review of bacterial wall composition, MDP access to NOD2, signaling and genetic pathways, and the limits of clinical evidence for specific inactivated preparations.
How the S100A8/S100A9 complex reaches stool from neutrophils, what the assay measures, and why thresholds differ for suspected IBD, remission monitoring, and postoperative follow-up.
How tributyrin and sodium butyrate differ in chemistry, lipolysis, release location, and clinical evidence—and why molecular composition alone does not prove delivery to the colon.
How berberine affects AMPK, MLCK, ZO-1, and occludin in epithelial injury models; pharmacokinetics, separate IBS-D and ulcerative-colitis findings, and limits of clinical inference.
From the chemistry of fructans, GOS, lactose, fructose, and polyols to small-bowel water on MRI, microbial metabolites, sensitivity to distension, and a three-phase dietary strategy.
How WGA and PHA bind glycans, what permeability models show, why undercooked beans can cause acute poisoning, and why clinical effects of cooked wheat remain uncertain.
The catalytic cycle of plant C1 proteases, food-protein hydrolysis, trace bromelain absorption, and the distinction between cellular mechanisms, brief trials, and unproven systemic thrombolysis.
Gastric proton-pump physiology, pepsin activation, mineral and B12 absorption, betaine HCl chemistry and human pH studies. Diagnosis, interactions, regulatory status, and the limits of acid replacement.
How HMOs are built, which bacteria use them and what is established for 2′-FL, intestinal barriers, infections and infant feeding. Primary studies are considered alongside adult, synbiotic, allergy and safety evidence, with their practical limitations.
How probiotic yeast affects bacterial toxins, what trials show about antibiotic-associated diarrhea, why current CDI guidance differs, and when fungemia risk rules out use.
How LOLA substrates connect urea synthesis, liver zonation and muscle glutamine metabolism, and what randomized trials actually show about hepatic encephalopathy, recurrence, acute liver failure and safety.
DLinPC chemistry, digestion and remodeling, mitochondria, PLA2, fibrosis, VLDL and bile. How model effects differ from MANPOWER, VA and EXCEL outcomes and clinical liver repair.
PAD4, NOX2, myeloperoxidase and elastase enzymology; NETs in thrombosis and autoimmunity, chromatin clearance and negative DNase trials.
Pentameric and monomeric CRP structure, calcium and phosphocholine, complement regulation, vascular effects, and the limits of causal inference from hs-CRP. Positive and negative cardiovascular trials.
How AKBA modulates lipoxygenases, why exposure limits mechanistic translation, and what positive and negative Boswellia trials show.
Andrographis paniculata chemistry, the preclinical Cys62 p50 NF-κB mechanism, trials of specific extracts for ARI symptoms, pharmacokinetics, and current allergy-safety signals.
How secretory IgA is assembled and transported across the epithelium, how it can limit pathogens while supporting some commensals, and why stool sIgA alone is not a diagnosis or treatment target.
How BSH cleaves conjugated bile acids, how bai-dependent DCA and LCA formation differs, and where evidence on FXR, TGR5, diarrhea, and inhibitors ends.
The complete pathway from choline and carnitine through CutC/CutD, CntA/B, and FMO3 to TMAO elimination; mechanistic models, human feeding studies, observational associations, fish, and CKD.
How pancreatic lipase, colipase, bile salts, intestinal pH and enzyme formulations determine digestion—and what human trials, fecal elastase and fat-absorption tests can establish about PERT.
How Akkermansia processes MUC2 glycans, supports microbial cross-feeding and interacts with the host through proteins and membrane lipids. Live and pasteurized preparations, four human trials including positive and null 2026 outcomes, and the limits of stool-based treatment decisions.
Extract composition, stereochemistry, oral and IV exposure, membrane experiments, OATP1B3, rat Pol I/rRNA, redox and fibrosis pathways. Primary liver trials, negative endpoints, interactions and formulation limits.
